"The Roman Church is not ashamed to say that they are
the sheep and lambs of Christ, and they say that the heretics
they persecute are the church of wolves. But this is absurd,
for the wolves have always pursued and killed the sheep,
and today it would have to be the other way around for
the sheep to be so mad as to bite, pursue, and kill the
wolves, and for the wolves to be so patient as to let the
sheep devour them!" (from the writings of the Cathars)
While the waves of Crusaders were crashing on the shores
of Palestine, the common people of Europe were experiencing
a crisis of faith. They could not find God in the churches,
with their corrupt clergy and droning Latin liturgy, and
were turning elsewhere in their groping for Him.
Everywhere in Europe the leaven of religious dissent was
spreading. New and diverse sects were sprouting up everywhere,
sharing in common a thirst for the pure source of the gospel,
and a return to the pattern of the primitive church. There
emerged two main trends: one leaning towards poverty and
preaching (such as the Waldensians ), and the
other leaning towards hard work and ritualistic life (such
as the Cathars ). An important common attraction
to these movements was their preaching in the language
of the people. They were also characterized by their common
and dangerous conviction: "It is better to obey God than
to obey men!"
Men and women sought a rampart against the evil they saw
present everywhere. They scoffed at the superstitious practices
of the Church, criticized infant baptism and denied the
validity of sacraments given by a corrupt clergy. They
preached detachment from this low world, whose prince is
Satan, and waited for the promise of "a new heaven and
a new earth where justice will dwell."
The 11th century was the century of monks and knights,
but also of religious dispute. As such, it was the century
of heretics. The papal church often referred to them as Manicheans . [1] The
name, once given, provided a convenient link to the historical
use of force against such heresies and also by naming them
so, the heresy was branded as an Eastern dualist movement, [2] effectively
disqualifying them and keeping the debate away from the
errors of Roman Catholicism. With violent reaction, the
Church opposed those whom the clergy named as false prophets
and servants of Satan, compelling the state to enact her
repressions: floggings, branding with hot irons, expulsions,
and inevitably, executions. Seven centuries had passed
since the execution of a Christian for heresy, [3] but
the new millennium would begin with 13 heretics being burned
at the stake in Orléans in 1022. It marked the beginning
of the violent and systematic religious repression which
would be the Church's practice for centuries.
Heretics Everywhere
Heretics were discovered in Champagne, in Aquitaine, in
Périgord, and also in Arras where the bishop "reconciled" many
in 1025. In northern Italy, an important and active group
was collectively burned at the stake around the same year.
Then in 1184 the Synod of Verona put forth the mandate
for the Inquisition:
In order to do away with various heresies which have recently
started to proliferate in several parts of the world, it
is necessary to rouse the force of the Church... Therefore
we decree that first of all the Cathars and Patarins be
permanently anathematized, then those who falsely call
themselves the Humble or Poor of Lyon, and... all those,
either forbidden or not sent, without authorization by
the Holy See or the local bishop, who are so presumptuous
as to preach in public or in private, as well as all those
who do not fear to think or teach about the Eucharist,
baptism, confession, marriage and the other sacraments
in any way other than that which the sacrosanct Roman Church
preaches and observes, and generally anyone who has been
judged as a heretic by the Roman Church herself. [4]
All over Europe the sects, as soon as detected, were destroyed,
their leaders tortured and the followers dispersed. New
movements continued to appear, sometimes even churches
were organized, but always in a general climate of clandestine
activity, suspicion, and often of terror.
The land of Languedoc [5] provided
asylum for the sect known as the Cathari or Cathars, [6] first
because of their good reputation with both lords and the
common people, and later because of the castles of the
region in some of which they took refuge. So, in spite
of the preaching campaign of St. Bernard in 1145 to convert
the heretics, the Cathar Church organized itself with the
open complicity and tolerance of the great barons.
Perhaps in this tolerance there was a degree of indifference
regarding religious issues. It seemed natural to the Occitan
people that one could profess the religion he chooses.
Even the Count of Toulouse, Raymond VI, displayed a benevolent
tolerance toward those who did not pray like him. Jews,
heretics, and Muslims lived on his lands and thus 
were
under his protection. By accepting the dissidents, the
counties of Languedoc were acknowledging more the right
to be a heretic than the heresy itself.
The Golden Age of Catharism
By the beginning of the 13th century, the Cathars were
long established in this favorable environment and living
in peace. In the south of France, the nobles built around
their castles big fortified villages where all the social
classes cohabited. This gave the Occitan feudal society
its original character of conviviality and allowed social
interaction which was an important factor in the growth
of Catharism.
Those Cathars who had taken vows of poverty, chastity,
and obedience to the Holy Scriptures lived in separate
communities of men and women. Their beliefs led them to
not lie, kill, judge, or take oaths. They prayed constantly,
night and day, refrained from eating meat or animal products,
and many fasted three times a week with only bread and
water. They made copies of the New Testament in the Occitan
language, many having with them at least the gospel of
John. This was the simple life observed by those around
them, in embarrassing contrast to the opulent and pampered
lives of the bishops.
The Cathars worked for their living by spinning, weaving,
working with wood or metal in shops that were places for
apprenticeship, but also preaching. In their houses, located
in the heart of the village, they cared for the sick, the
needy, and the traveler. Those houses were meeting places
where rich and poor could interact naturally as they listened
to their teaching. Their simple solutions to the moral
problems and spiritual concerns of their day attracted
the nobles as well as the common people.
Called by their neighbors the "good Christians," they
gained the respect of all, and their faith propagated quickly,
threatening the spiritual and material dominion of the
Catholic Church. By their words the Cathars were opponents,
as they rejected the dogmatic authority of the Church,
considered its sacraments as null and void, and denied
the legitimacy of the Pope. They neither owned nor desired
riches or power, and demanded no taxes. Theirs was not
an attempt to reform Catholicism, but to separate from
it and band together in a life of purity and devotion to
God, as they understood Him. It was a more brotherly, egalitarian
society, freed from the heavy hierarchy of the Roman Church.
Catharism may well have become the dominant religion of
the people of southern France, if left in peace.
"Above Peoples and Kingdoms"
In 1198, Innocent III ascended to the supreme spiritual
power with a well-set goal: to restore the Church in its
worldwide dominance. He drew his conviction both from the
sacred writings and from history, declaring in his inauguration
speech:
"To me the word of the Prophet applies: I have appointed
you this day over the nations and over the kingdoms, that
you may uproot and destroy, and that you may build up and
plant." [7]
"God has established us above peoples and kingdoms. Nothing
of what goes on in the universe must escape the Pope's
notice or control. God, creator of the world, has placed
two big heavenly bodies in the firmament in order to give
it light: the sun which presides over the days, and the
moon which orders the nights. In the same way, He has instituted
two high dignities in the world: the papacy which reigns
over the souls, and the royalty which dominates the bodies.
But the former is very superior to the latter. As the moon
receives its light from the sun, which shines much brighter
than the moon, so the royal power draws all its splendor
and prestige from the power of the Pope." [8]
The power which the princes exercise had only been delegated
to them, as it were, and the fullness of power ultimately
belongs to the Church:
"Christ, he writes, has not only given Peter ruling power
over the Universal Church, but over the whole age. The
princes have been given power on earth; the priesthood
has been assigned the power on earth as well as in heaven." [9]
The Albigensian Crusade [10]
Since Catharism represented such a danger to Catholicism,
the new Pope decided to take the situation in hand by using " the
force of the material glaive [double-edged sword], by means
of the princes and the people" to prevail against
the heretics and those who protected them, namely the Occitan
lords.
On March 10, 1208, Innocent III sent to the bishops, counts,
and knights of France, and even to the king, a virulent
call for holy war: 
"Forward then, Christian knights!
Forward, courageous recruits of the Christian army!
May the universal cry of distress of the Holy Church
lead you along! May a pious zeal set you on fire to
avenge so great an offense against your God! ... They
say that the faith has departed, peace is dead, and
the heretical pest and the warring fury have regained
new strength: the ship of the Church will suffer total
shipwreck unless it gets some strong help in this unprecedented
storm. This is why we ask you to give heed to our warnings,
we exhort you with kindness, we order you with confidence
in the name of Christ, in the face of such peril we
promise the remission of your sins, so that you may
thwart such great dangers without delay. Make every
effort to pacify these populations. Be diligent to destroy
the heresy by any means God will inspire you to use.
With greater assurance than with the Saracens, since
they are more dangerous, fight the heretics with a mighty
hand and an outstretched arm. As far as the count of Toulouse
is concerned, who seems to have made an alliance with death
without considering his own, if by any chance torment is
going to give him understanding, and if his face covered
with ignominy starts to implore the name of God, continue
to lay threats on him until he satisfies us, the Church,
and God. Drive him and his accomplices out of the tents
of the Lord. Strip them of their land, so that Catholics
may replace the eliminated heretics and serve in God's
presence in holiness and justice according to the discipline
of your orthodox faith." [11]
For ten years he had tried in vain to launch this crusade,
coming up against the resistance of the princes as well
as the nonchalance of the prelates. He had to content himself
with opposing the Cathars by preaching, and that without
much success, as he had only the force of conviction and
persuasion of the Dominican and Franciscan orders.
The murder of the Pope's legate in the Toulouse region
provided the Pope with the pretext he needed to convince
the lords of France to take up the crusade, called Negotium
Pacis et Fidei ("the business of peace and faith"),
expressing well that this military campaign had both political
and religious goals. Ultimately, it would increase the
spiritual and temporal power of the Pope.
In 1209 the papal legate, Arnaud Amaury, surged towards
the land of Languedoc at the head of a huge international
army. Béziers was the first besieged city. Refusing
to hand over to the crusaders the 220 heretics living there,
the city was plundered and burned and its 20,000 inhabitants
slaughtered in a morning's work. " Kill them all; God
will know his own, " was the sadly famous command
given by the Pope's legate when asked how to distinguish
heretics from Catholics. " The divine revenge
marvelously struck the city; we killed them all, " wrote
Amaury to the Holy See.
For nearly 15 years, the crusade ravaged the country.
The Occitan lords, accused of protecting the heretics,
were utterly dispossessed. Any resisting city was treated
without pity. Whole communities of Cathars were burned
at the stake: 140 in Minerve, 400 in Lavaur, 200 in Montségur [12]... However,
the "Holy War" did not achieve its goal of eradicating
Catharism, and a counter-offensive from the Occitan lords
ended with the departure of the crusaders in 1224. Through
this re-conquest the lords of the south recovered their
goods and some of their cities, and Catharism reappeared
in open day. Their churches were reorganized and the communities
flourished again.
In 1226 a second crusade was roused by the Pope, headed
up by the new king of France, Louis VIII himself. Drained
by years of battle and attrition, Occitany finally surrendered
in 1229. It was the end of the crusade, but not the end
of the Cathars. Politically the crusade was a success for
the king of France. The royal house of Capet emerged victorious
from this 20-year-long war launched by the Pope against
the lords of the south, resulting in the annexation of
the Languedoc to the royal domain. As for the Church, the
crusade had torn apart social bonds and opened wide the
way to eliminate the heresy once and for all. " Negotium
pacis " was done, " negotium fidei " was
still left to do.
The Inquisition
Where the sword had not been able to destroy the heretics,
Rome was going to find more effective means. A council
held in Toulouse in 1229 ordered:
"That in every parish three commissioners be appointed
who are especially charged with seeking out the heretics
from the cellar to the attic, and denouncing them to the
bailiffs.
That the converted heretics be interned in Catholic cities
lest they backslide; there they will wear two crosses on
either side of their chest which are of a different color
from their clothes, so they can be recognized.
That every heretic whose conversion was not obtained by
devotion but by fear of the laws, be detained in a fortress,
so that he cannot defile others...
That no one keep either the Old or the New Testament in
his possession, but only the collection of psalms, the
book with excerpts of the gospels, and the daily prayer
book, and let these books not be translated into the common
language." [13]
But by 1233, the papacy under Gregory IX, conscious of
the failure and reluctance of the local clergy to enforce
these measures, created a repressive institution under
its direct control: the Inquisition was officially born,
a tribunal whose mission was to eradicate heresy.
According to the law we apply the term heretic in very
specific cases: A heretic is any excommunicated person,
any sorcerer, anyone who opposes the Roman Church and dares
contest the dignity which she has received from God, as
well as anyone who commits errors in the explanation of
the Holy Scripture, or anyone who creates a new sect; also
anyone who does not receive the Roman doctrine regarding
the sacraments, who interprets one or several creeds differently
from the Church of Rome, or who doubts the faith. [14]
Many have argued that Pope Gregory IX, by entrusting the
Inquisition to the Dominicans, was hoping to ensure the
defense of the faith and the re-conquest of souls by persuasion.
But the Dominicans proved to be so severe and excessive
that the Pope associated the Franciscan monks to them in
1237, "to moderate the rigor of the formers by the leniency
of the latter."
The inquisitors organized their institution with great
zeal, with rigorous procedures and thoroughly recorded
depositions. Through threat, cunning and sagacity, the
inquisitors sought to obtain 
confessions. In 1252, in the
bull " Ad extirpendam " Pope Innocent IV officially
authorized the use of torture "to help determine the truth"!
To begin with, the inquisitor advocates imprisonment which,
when cleverly prolonged, "enlightens" the prisoner and
inclines him towards converting. The penitentiary system
includes first fasting, then putting the feet in shackles,
then putting the hands in chains, then other more cruel
forms of torment. If the prisoner turns out to be non-repentant
we will subject him to torture. An order is given to avoid
mutilation or mortal danger. [15]
The inquisitors created an atmosphere of general suspicion
which undermined the whole society by destroying solidarity,
trust, and friendship in the once-tolerant and welcoming
Languedoc. Everyone trembled. Because of a mere denunciation
one might lose his freedom, all his goods, and even his
life.
Though the stated goal of the Inquisition was to combat
heresy, not to kill, it brought many to the executioner:
The Church does not even consider the penalties she imposes
as real punishments. She gives them the nature of penances
which are useful for the spiritual well-being of those
accused of heresy. The heretic who stubbornly refuses to
renounce his errors and the backslider are handed over
to the secular judicial authorities. This decision protects
the inquisitor from committing an irregularity by being
involved in a capital sentence. [16]
By means of large-scale police operations, sometimes rounding
up whole villages, the inquisitors dismantled the clandestine
Cathar Church. One after the other, the fugitives were
denounced and arrested. In 1321, the last known Cathar,
Guilhem Belibaste, was burned at the stake. It had taken
a century for the Inquisition to totally eradicate the
dissenting church.
[1] Augustine refuted
Manichaeism around the year 400, and in 405 the Synod of
Carthage endorsed the use of force by the state when persuasion
failed to convert the heretics.
[2] The belief that
good and evil are equal opposing forces in the universe.
[3] Priscillian, Bishop
of Avila, was beheaded in 385 -- the first recorded instance
of a Christian being executed based on condemnation by
fellow Christians on points of doctrine.
[4] Giovanni Gonnet, Cahiers
de civilisation médiévale, tome 19
n°4, p. 325
[5] Langue d'Oc, literally "language
of yes," or Occitan, spoken in southern France.
[6] Some say that Cathari comes
from the Greek katharoi , meaning the pure ,
but never would the Cathars call themselves "the pure" or "the
perfect" as they were called. By their neighbors, they
were simply called "the good men" or "the good Christians." However,
Nicolas Gouzy of the Centre d'Études Cathares (Center
of Cathar Studies) writes, "It seems almost certain today
that Cathars is more comparable to an insult and
would mean "cat worshippers" or "catists" which is supported
by the use of the adjective catier ... and would
derive from the Low German ketter (cat); also
the German translation of the word heresy is die
Ketzerei , same root. In the iconography of the moralized
Bibles of the XIth century, they were almost always accompanied
by cats, symbol of evil for all of medieval Christendom." (Private
e-mail, May 22, 1997)
[7] Michel Roquebert, L'EPOPEE
CATHARE , p. 129
[8]DOCUMENTS ET
CIVILISATION, de la Préhistoire à nos jours ,
classiques Hachette, p. 37
[9] Roquebert, p. 130
[10] Another term for
the Cathars, from Albi in southern France, where
they dwelled.
[11] Monique Zenner-Chardavoine, LA
CROISADE ALBIGEOISE , p. 76
[12] Montségur
was the last stand of the Cathar Church in 1244, some 20
years after the crusade, marking the grim success of the
Inquisition with the corporate burning alive of over 200 "Perfects" in
one terrible bonfire. After Montségur there was
no organized Cathar Church anymore, but it would take about
80 more years to completely eradicate Catharism.
[13] Jules Isaac and
Henri Béjean, LE MOYEN AGE, classe de cinquième ,
p. 130
[14] The inquisitor
Nicolas Eymerich, 1376, quoted in Laurent Albaret, L'Inquisition,
Rempart de la foi , p. 99
[15] The inquisitor
Bernard Gui, 1322, Albaret, p. 101
[16] Albaret, p. 102
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